As older persons constitute
an ever-increasing proportion of the total population, they have the potential
to become more infl uential politically, economically and socially. Fulfi lling
this potential would be in line with the objectives of the Madrid International
Plan of Action on Ageing, which are to ensure that people can age with security
and dignity and continue to participate fully in their societies as citizens
with full rights. Older persons should be aff orded the possibility of becoming
more actively engaged in the development process so that their skills, experiences,
wisdom and knowledge can be put to use in society for the benefi t of all.
In most countries, the
position of older persons in society and the opportunities available to them
for remaining active participants in the life of the community are often associated
with their economic and political power. A growing cohort of older persons,
particularly those in high-income developed countries, carry substantial weight
in the economy and often hold a signifi cant share of wealth. As there is usually
a close correlation between economic and political power, older persons who
are seen as exercising considerable power in the marketplace will likely translate
this power into signifi cant political power and participation. In Germany,
for example, those over age 50 own half of the nation’s wealth and have
the spending capacity of 90 billion euros per year (European Foundation for
the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 2006a; World Bank, 2006a).
Many businesses are responding to the growth of this consumer market by designing
products and services especially targeted at older age groups. Th e emergence
of new markets is expanding the job growth potential of the “silver economy”
through the creation of new products, services, economic cooperation and networks
geared towards older persons.
At the other end of the
spectrum, the factors that contribute to a person’s vulnerability, namely,
poverty, poor health, lack of education, disabilities and absence of infl uence,
become accentuated as a person ages. Th ese factors combine to limit and constrain
older persons’ ability to participate fully in their communities. For
example, low educational levels and illiteracy are major barriers to social
and political participation. In 2000, 23 per cent of persons aged 70 years or
over in Malta and 25 per cent of those in the same age group in Portugal were
illiterate. While these illiteracy rates may be atypical in most developed countries,
they do indicate that illiteracy remains a concern for older persons even in
high-income countries (United Nations, 2002b).
Although illiteracy rates
have been declining over the past 20 years in all regions of the world, they
remain generally high in developing countries. Illiteracy rates among those
aged 60 years or over in the developing countries dropped from 75 to 56 per
cent in the period from 1980 to 2000, and they are expected to continue to fall,
reaching 43 per cent by 2010. Yet, major imbalances in literacy achievement
across countries remain. Illiteracy rates still exceed 90 per cent in some of
the least developed countries in Africa, while they have fallen to below 10
per cent for older persons in countries like Argentina, Tajikistan and Uruguay.
However, as most of the declines in illiteracy have taken place among males,
there has been a consequent increase in the literacy gender gap. In 1980, there
was a 22 percentage point diff erence in literacy rates between women and men
over age 60. By 2000, this diff erence had increased to 28 percentage points.
In the Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) region, for example,
the illiteracy rate is high among older women because “they were not exposed
to educational opportunities at a time when tradition was more in control of
their lives, leading to their seclusion, hence denying them the right to education”
(El-Safty, 2006, p. 22).
Th ese fi gures on illiteracy
underscore the diffi culties that older segments of the population, particularly
in developing countries, confront in respect of accessing and processing information
that is directly relevant to them. Illiterate older persons are frequently unaware
of their rights and the benefi ts to which they are entitled, including social
security benefi ts. A 2002 survey in Th ailand, for example, indicated that
only 50 per cent of those aged 60 years or over were aware of the availability
of social security for older persons, and that as few as 5 per cent actually
received those benefi ts (Cheng, Chan and Phillips, 2006). Education and literacy
are important elements of the process of empowering older persons and expanding
their opportunities to continue to contribute to society and to its development.
Participation in social, economic, cultural, sporting, recreational and volunteer
activities also contributes to increasing and sustaining the well-being of older
persons and of the population at large. In recent years, most developing countries
have made substantial progress in expanding the coverage of primary education
and reducing the gender gap in educational attainment. It is therefore to be
expected that this negative eff ect of lack of education on empowerment will
be substantially reduced over the next 50 years as the current generation of
children is transformed into the older generation.
Political participation
Th e voices of older persons
can best be heard through their active political participation at the individual
level (through voting in elections), at the group level (through participation
in organizations of older persons) and at the government level (through the
formation of advisory bodies of older persons). Demographic changes, by themselves,
have captured the attention of policymakers with respect to issues that concern
older people; at the same time, greater political involvement of older people
has been an important factor in drawing attention to their needs. Voting power
Older individuals have a greater propensity for exercising their democratic
right to vote in many countries than those in other age groups. In Kazakhstan,
for instance, older persons constitute an active electorate, with 72 per cent
of those aged 65 years or over having voted in recent elections, compared with
just over 50 per cent of those aged 35-40 (United Nations Development Programme
and the United Nations Population Fund, 2005). Similarly, older persons in the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland currently have the highest
voting incidence in the population, well above that of younger age groups; during
the 2005 parliamentary elections, for example, those aged 65 years or over were
twice as likely to vote as those aged 18-24, with the voting rates of these
two age groups being 75 and 37 per cent, respectively (International Institute
for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, 2006a).
Similarly in the United
States, although voting rates of younger age groups have been falling over the
past two decades, those for Americans aged 65 years or over have held steady
or increased slightly; in fact; older persons now constitute the most active
part of the electorate (U.S. Census Bureau, 2005). Th ere is no evidence, however,
that older persons constitute a single, unifi ed voting block: they are of diff
erent political persuasions and vote for a wide range of candidates. Yet they
are becoming an infl uential force and one to be reckoned with regarding the
issues and policies that most aff ect them, such as the current debates over
social security reform and long-term care insurance. Th e expansion of the Medicare
programme in 2003 to include prescription drug coverage represents one result
of their growing political impact. Not all countries share the same tradition
of the enjoyment by older people of high political participation and infl uence.
Data from the fi rst round of the 2005 presidential election in Liberia indicate
that two groups had the lowest rate of voter turnout: older persons aged 68
years or over and young people aged 18-22 (International Institute for Democracy
and Electoral Assistance, 2006b). In other countries, mainly in sub-Saharan
Africa, where older persons constitute only 5 per cent of the population, compared
with those under age 15 who constitute 41 per cent, relatively low priority
is given to policies for older persons. Th ey are also less likely to be suffi
ciently empowered to be able to draw attention to their concerns.
Organizations of
older persons
Organizations of older
persons—particularly older women, who often remain voiceless—provide
an important means of enabling participation through advocacy and promotion
of multigenerational interactions. Furthermore, these groups can help to harness
the political infl uence of older persons and ensure that they eff ectively
participate in the debate and decision-making processes at all levels of government.
Th ere are several examples
of successful and infl uential organizations of older persons, including AARP
(formerly known as the American Association of Retired Persons) in the United
States, with its 36 million members, and pensioners’ organizations in
Sweden to which half of all older persons belong. Labour unions also provide
older persons with an important means of representation, particularly in Europe
where most retired workers remain active union members (Peterson, 2002). Th
ese organizations provide information, advocacy, resources, activities and support
to older persons, and exert considerable infl uence in economic and social policymaking.
HelpAge International is a prominent global network of non-governmental organizations
whose mission is to improve the lives of disadvantaged older persons. Th e network
consists of affi liate organizations in some 50 countries which are committed
to supporting practical programmes, giving a voice to disempowered older persons,
and infl uencing policy at the local, national and international levels (HelpAge
International, 2006a). Actions are directed towards encouraging Governments
and communities to recognize the needs, values and rights of disadvantaged older
persons, and to encompass them in their programmes. In recent years, HelpAge
International has been particularly infl uential in advocating for social pension
plans to assist impoverished older persons in sub-Saharan Africa.
Th ere are also a number
of prominent international non-governmental organizations that represent the
interests of older persons.7 Th ese include the International Federation on
Ageing (IFA), the International Federation of Senior Citizens Associations (FIAPA)
and the European Federation of Older Persons (EURAG). Th rough their various
activities, these organizations aim to improve the quality of life of older
persons by infl uencing policies, engaging in grass-roots activities and strengthening
public-private partnerships. In addition, they also work to improve the image
of older persons by challenging the prevailing stereotypes about ageing, accentuating
the contributions that older people make to society so as to counterbalance
the emphasis on the economic challenges created by demographic ageing (Global
Action in Aging, 2006). Another example is the International Association of
Gerontology and Geriatrics (IAGG), an international organization of researchers
and professionals in the area of ageing. With its member organizations in 64
countries, IAGG promotes the highest levels of achievement of gerontology research
and training worldwide.
Consultation and
advisory committees
Several countries also
provide for direct consultation and participation of older persons in the design
and evaluation of government programmes. Th e most advanced in this respect
have established government offi ces on ageing at the ministerial or similar
level, such as the Department of Health and Ageing (Australia), the Division
of Ageing and Seniors of the Public Health Agency (Canada), the National Committee
on Ageing (China), the Federal Ministry for Family Aff airs, Senior Citizens,
Women and Youth (Germany) and the Administration on Ageing (United States).
A number of countries have established independent advisory bodies, composed
of academics, representatives from the private sector and non-governmental organizations,
to address ageing issues and the concerns of older persons. Th ese advisory
bodies, which are typically charged with the task of advising Governments on
developing and implementing policies, can serve as watchdogs in the context
of government policymaking. Advisory bodies can constitute an important mechanism
through which to incorporate opinions and facilitate close and regular monitoring
of policy implementation at the local or community level. Th ey can also play
a role in evaluating the impact of new programmes and improving their results.
Advisory bodies currently
exist in a variety of countries such as Austria, Chile, Guatemala, India and
Mexico. Austria, for example, has established an independent council of senior
citizens with rights and responsibilities similar to those of a chamber of commerce,
which has become a major contributor to discussions on national policy on ageing.
Chile has created a National Service for Older Persons which includes an advisory
committee composed of representatives of older persons’ organizations,
academia and institutions working with older persons. Guatemala has a National
Council for Protection of the Aged which consults with civil society
and organizations of older persons. In India, a National Council of Older Persons,
whose membership comprises government representatives (25 per cent), and academics
and retired persons from rural and urban communities (75 per cent), is accepted
by the Government as a watchdog agency designed to monitor policy on ageing.
In Mexico, the National Institute of Older Persons requires that senior citizens
be included in advisory bodies concerned with relevant issues. A common feature
of many of these advisory bodies is the independence they enjoy which enables
them to play a role in monitoring the implementation of the Madrid Plan of Action.
A remaining challenge is to ensure that these advisory bodies become eff ective
mechanisms of broad consultation and representation in respect of the various
concerns that aff ect the welfare of older persons, while taking due account
of major diff erences that may exist in the access to services and benefi ts
by older people in urban and rural areas, based on income group, ethnicity and
gender. Th is would be especially relevant in countries where inequality has
traditionally excluded large groups of the population from participation in
the political debate. In countries where older persons do not have formal mechanisms
for participation in the policy debate, there is the double challenge of improving
their opportunities to create organizations and increasing the policy space
within the government needed to allow active participation in policy design
and monitoring.
By Development in an Ageing
World, UN
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